Miami University

OSAAK OLLUMWULLAH

INTRODUCTION FOR FACULTY TO THIS LONG WRITING ASSIGNMENT

During the Center for Writing Excellence/CELT four-day Workshop on Improving Student Writing in Content Courses, I had the opportunity to not only reflect on what we mean when we talk about student writing, but also to develop a one-semester writing assignment for one of the courses I will be offering next academic year.

Tribalism in Twentieth-Century African History is a 400-level course that explores the era of colonial rule and the emergence of new states and societies in Africa, south of the Sahara. Through the reading and interpretation of key texts and documents, students will be asked to inquire into the relationships among colonial conquest and domination, culture contact, and the processes of social change that were at the center of what historians like Terence Ranger have called the invention of tradition. The fulcrum, or central idea, around which this will be done is what in some quarters has come to be seen as tribalism as an inverted social, political and economic tradition in modern African history.

This is a research-driven process whereby students will have to come up with a well-thought-out thesis/statement of the problem around which the research will be carried out. The pedagogical philosophy driving this course is the argument, learned in the above-mentioned workshop, that there is a dialogical relationship between the writing process and critical thinking which some of us had taken for granted for a long time.

This summer’s Workshop on Improving Student Writing was an eye-opener to me at several levels. But perhaps the most important thing I am coming out with is how I can go about developing long assignments

(sequenced) in some of my courses.

OSAAK OLUMWULLAH

LONG WRITING ASSIGNMENT FOR STUDENTS

HST 400.Q: TRIBALISM IN TWENTIETH-CENTURY AFRICAN HISTORY

Osaak A. Olumwullah

Course goals:

This course explores the era of colonial rule and the emergence of new states and societies in Africa south of the Sahara. Through the reading and interpretation of key texts and documents (primary and secondary), the course explores, more specifically, the nature of African societies on the eve of colonial conquest; Africa under colonialism before World War II; changing policies of the colonial powers and the social factors that led to the rise of nationalist liberation movements; the process of de-colonization; and the independence period from the 1960s to the present. The underlying question that animates our inquiry in the course is: What is the relationship between the politics of colonial conquest and domination, culture contact, and processes of social change in twentieth-century Africa? Where do we locate both the production of the idea “tribe” and its circulation in this relationship? How has this idea, through time and space, shaped our understanding of social, political, and economic change on the continent?

Assignment context:

The goal of this assignment is to encourage students to critically explain the nature and processes of social change in twentieth-century Africa through a systematic study of the rise and development of various structures and their functions on the continent. Some of the major concepts that will be discussed here include culture, culture-contact/cultural transformation, cultural pluralism, “tribe” and “tribalism”, ethnicity, etc. These concepts will be organized around the theme of social change, conflict, and the search for order in twentieth-century Africa. Second, the course aims at understanding the relationship between power and political identity, particularly group identity, in the colonial and post-colonial period. This goal will revolve around our attempts as a class to not only understand the relationship between politics and culture, but also to establish as to whether there are differences between political and cultural identities. The class will therefore seek to understand how, since most African countries attained their political independence in the 1960s, tribalism/ethnicity has come to be woven into the fabric of group politics. Finally, the course aims at helping students to both learn and appreciate how Africans, themselves, have always been producers of their own history and culture.

Grade assignment and grading criteria:

The class meets once every week on Mondays between 3:00 and 5:40pm. Assignments will be divided into two parts. In the first part, students will be required to write two book reports (2 pages each). Each report will carry 10% of the final grade. In the second part, assignments will revolve around research on an issue of interest chosen from the broad topic that is provided at the end of this course outline. This part is in sections. First, students will be required to carry out background research on their chosen topic after which they will write a two-page research proposal on the topic. This part will carry 10% of the final grade. Second, students will review secondary and primary literature on their chosen topic. This will carry 20% of the final grade. Third, after having successfully gone through the second stage, students will prepare a working draft of their paper. This will carry 20% of the final grade. Fourth, students will orally present their research findings to the entire class. This will carry 10% of the final grade. Finally, students will use their accumulated knowledge to write the final paper, carrying 20% of the final grade. The final paper should be planned to be between 15 and 20 pages in length, or a few more depending on the scope of a student’s research.

In all the stages of research and writing, notes should be included citing the sources of ideas and information. A bibliography at the end of stages one to three of the research process should include with each entry a brief annotation (comment) about the character and value of the source for the paper. Students should be careful to avoid the risk of plagiarism. The writing must be a student’s own individual unaided work.

Throughout this two-part assignment, the instructor will be looking for clarity, accuracy, precision, relevance, depth, breadth, logic, and significance. Below is a 5-Point Scale grading rubric.

Grading Rubric:

Assignment sequence:

1. Book Reports

The main objective of these reports is to give you a sense of place in your understanding of the complexities of social change in twentieth-century Africa. After providing a brief/short introductory paragraph(s) on what the book is generally all about, your report must closely reflect what ‘sense(s) of place’ of Africa the book/novel provides and, using this knowledge, how the book/novel helps you in your understanding of some of, or most of, or all of, the main topics these class is dealing with.

For those of you who are preparing book reports on works other than literary works, close attention should be paid to the following:

• author’s purpose with the aim of establishing as to whether it is well-stated;

• the key question(s) the author sets out to answer and as to whether they are relevant to the stated purpose (are the questions and purpose relevant to each other?);
• the most important information presented by the author: Does he cite relevant evidence, experiences, and/or information essential to the issue? Is it accurate and directly relevant to the question at issue? Does the writer address the complexities of the issue?

• the most fundamental concepts which are at the heart of the author’s reasoning: Does the writer clarify key ideas when necessary? Are the ideas used justifiably?
• the author’s assumptions: Does the writer show a sensitivity to what he/she is taking for granted or assuming? Or does the writer use questionable assumptions without addressing problems inherent in those assumptions?
• the most important inferences or conclusions in the book/text/monograph: Do the inferences and conclusions made by the author clearly follow from the information relevant to the issue, or does the author jump to unjustifiable conclusions? Does the author consider alternative conclusions where the issue is complex? In other words, does the author use a sound line of reasoning to come to logical conclusions, or can you identify flaws in the reasoning somewhere?
• the author’s point of view: Does the author show a sensitivity to alternative relevant points of view or lines of reasoning? Does he/she consider and respond to objections framed from other relevant points of view?
• Implications: Does the writer display a sensitivity to the implications and consequences of the position he/she takes?

In either case, the report should:

• contain an introduction of the book/monograph/text (including the book’s/monograph’s/text’s argument and background, and a short summary);
• place the work and, if possible, its author in the context of what this class is all about. The report should therefore attempt a critical discussion of how the main themes/ideas of the work fit in any one (or several of) the themes/topics being discussed in this class.
• What would you say are the main strengths and weaknesses of the author(s)?
• Though the bulk of the report should be grounded in your own reading of the book/monograph/text, use of secondary works (like ideas from class discussions) to deepen the intellectual sophistication of the report will be in order.
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Your grade for both reports will be comprised of the following criteria:

• Creativity (depth of reading, ability to make connections between or among rhetorical devices and knowledge of the history of modern Africa)): 30%
• Demonstration of knowledge (understanding and incorporation of lecture and textbook materials into your understanding of the book/text/monograph): 50%
• Mechanics (grammar, punctuation, coherence, logical arguments, etc.): 20%

2. Sequenced research assignment:

Unlike the first set of assignments, what you are about to embark on is a very important stage since it touches so many history-related skills required of you. All these stages are about historical research, which in itself is mostly done from written sources. In more generalized terms, this is what you should be looking for at each and every stage:

i. Background Research/Proposal:

The historical problem, broadly defined, has been provided at the bottom of your syllabus. What remains to be done is for you, in narrowing down to the particular aspect(s) you want to address yourself to, is to

• get to the library and search for relevant materials (search catalogs, access online databases, use interlibrary loan, etc.). Read these sources, determine their arguments, and put them in conversion with each other. What historical problems can you detect in this conversation? Ask yourself, for example, what brought about the discussion among Africanists over the question of tribalism/ethnicity on H-Net in 1996? Did the discussants come to any conclusion(s) you would rate as satisfactory? What do these discussions reveal in the light of your library readings? Are there any gaps (in terms of your knowledge) on the topic that need filling? The answers to these questions, in a word, should constitute the problem you want to tackle in your paper.
• ask yourself what your purpose is for writing about the aspect(s) you have chosen. Why should you write about this, and why should anyone read it?
• ask yourself how you are going to achieve your stated objective/purpose. How, for example, would you achieve your purpose if you wanted to describe the historical origins of “tribalism” in modern Africa? Would you define for yourself a specific means of doing so? Would your comments on the topic go beyond merely telling the reader that tribalism is one of the colonial legacies Africa must get rid of?
• Brainstorm. Start the ideas flowing by gathering as many good and bad ones, as well as examples, etc. as you can on the topic of your choice. Jot down everything that comes to mind, including material you are sure you will throw out. Talk to your audience, or pretend that you are being interviewed by someone, or by several people on the problem of tribalism/ethnicity in Africa (to give yourself the opportunity of considering the subject from different points of view). What questions would the other person ask? See if you can find a fresh analogy that opens up a new set of ideas. For example, if you are writing, generally, about “tribalism” in African history, is this “tribalism” like a mythic beast that has for the last one hundred years or so been tearing at the sinews that hold that continent together?
• Take a rest and let it percolate.
• Nutshell your whole idea. Tell it to me in two pages.

ii. Review of secondary and primary literature:

You have, in the preceding stage of your project, developed a historical problem. What remains to be done is to find a set of secondary and primary historical sources that can actually address the question(s) you have formulated. How do you go about this?

Let us start by looking at secondary sources. Secondary sources are often specialized books, dissertations, or theses that look at available period evidence about a person, place, thing, or idea. They are usually written out of period (of research) but nonetheless refer to that period’s sources. They are a good place to grasp a complete view of a culture, idea, or issue you are researching on. They also vary greatly in quality, complexity, and scope (this is where you use book reviews and abstracts). Secondary sources are often blended sources: they have pictures, quotes, graphics, and the facsimiles of primary sources in them. This is extraordinarily helpful; you can get a feel for a primary source without having to find it in its entirety. Once you have identified the secondary sources you want to use in your research project, go back to the Book Reports section and go through all the stages on purpose, key question(s), the most important information, fundamental concepts, assumptions, important inferences or conclusions, point of view, and implications to analyze these sources. What would you say are the main strengths and weaknesses of the author(s) of these books and/or articles? Broadly speaking, note the following:

• Identify, from the point of view of your most educated opinion, the most important books or articles from this set.
• To what extent are these books or articles representative of the issue(s) at hand? Do experts in the field agree with this representation? If there are disagreements, in what sense? (book reviews could be handy here).
• If there are competing schools of thought, what do you think is the orientation of the author(s) of the book or article? Do they highlight these competing schools and detail their implications for your research topic?
• Would other experts in history disagree with any of the answers given in the books or articles to important questions? How would they disagree?
• Do other books and/or articles in your identified list of secondary sources approach this field from a significantly different standpoint? If there are, how should we understand orientation or bias in the books or articles?
• Are there books in other fields (sociology, anthropology, political science, economics, for example) that deal with this same subject (from a different standpoint, perhaps)? To what extent are there conflicting views about the subject in light of these different standpoints?
• To what extent do the questions asked in this literature lead to definitive answers with regard to your research topic? Conversely, to what extent are questions in this literature a matter of (arguable) judgment? Does the literature help you to distinguish between these very different types of questions? In other words, what are the strengths and limitations of this literature? (What, technically, should inform the historical problem developed in the preceding stage are the limitations you identify in this literature). How do you propose to deal with the limitations?

Having finished with this part and reformulated your historical problem, you should move on to answer the question: How do I go about filling the gaps I have found in the preceding process? Proceed by finding a set of primary historical sources that can actually address the limitations identified in the secondary literature. This is what you should do:

• Look in standard secondary and tertiary reference sources and look at their bibliographies;
• Look under names of the standard authors;
• Search for key words.
• Look for people’s names, including biographies;
• Look for book reviews (to save yourself from having to read all of these books);
• Search for journals related to your topic;
• Look in special libraries like history libraries, or private collections;
• Look in contemporary fields such as geography, political science, international law, art history, anthropology, theology, etc.;
• Cultivate your humanities, history, or reference librarian. These are nice people, and they know their collections. They how to find things, and they know how to search their databases.
• Look at newspapers and magazines;
• Where possible, carry out oral interviews.

Once you have all your primary sources all laid out, what criteria do you use to select which ones you wish to consult? The best structure for an evaluation uses the classic “who, what, when, where, and how” criteria. Here is how to apply these questions to a primary source:

• WHO? Who created it? In the case of the broad research question this semester, you would want to know whether the source was created by a colonial administrator, a missionary, an anti-colonial campaigner, an African relating his/her experiences with “tribalism”, an African leader using “tribalism” to stay in power, a foreign journalist explaining the role of “tribalism” in contemporary African politics, scholars debating the merits and demerits of “tribalism” (like in the H-Net case), a cultural anthropologist talking about the importance of cultural preservation, a contemporary multiculturalist exuding the virtues of difference, diaries/journals by travelers, etc.
• WHEN? When did they write it? Are they a contemporary of the person, event, action, etc. (colonial administrators and the inauguration of Indirect Rule; nationalists fighting against colonialism; participants in the struggle for democratization in pre-colonial Africa)? Did they write it later using their memories or rumor?
• WHAT? What did they create? A book, artwork, or some sort of philosophical speculations on the nature of “tribe”? What purpose did it serve? In other words, for whom and for what purposes was it created?
• WHERE? Note that there are regional and temporal differences in climate of opinion (e.g. eve of colonial conquest; the colonial condition; urban/rural divide; the nationalist struggle; attainment of independence and the problem of “sharing” the fruits of freedom; economic problems during the post-independence era; etc.). Regional differences: Is the problem defined more or less in similar terms across Africa? Other mitigating factors: Religion? Foreign interference? Etc.
• HOW? Did these writers use eyewitnesses? Other accounts? News media? Is their account littered with unsubstantiated rumor? A good question to ask is how good is the rest of the source.

What if you are uncomfortable with a particular source? Do another search and see if you can find any sources to supplement, replace, or confirm the references you are using from these sources. Your citation will have more authority if you are able to back up your point with multiple sources. On the basis of your findings, write your review in four to five pages.

iii. Working Draft:

Bring together sections one and two and write a paper presenting your findings in a clearly, coherently, and consistently argued narrative. Make sure you have an introduction (a reworking of your proposal), the main body of the draft essay (review of literature and your observations), and a tentative conclusion.

iv. Oral presentation:

Prepare to share your findings with the class in a 5-10 minutes’ presentation.

v. Final paper:

This is the end product of your labors on the second part of your two-part assignment. In must reflect, among other things:

• The instructor’s comments/suggestions on parts one through three;
• Your classmates’ comments/suggestions after your oral presentation;
• Your own further readings and reflections on your research topic
• Full citations;
• A bibliography.

This, technically, is a revised, final copy of your working draft.

Broad Research Question:

An important feature of the history of modern Africa has been the way certain key concepts are used to both map out transitions from one era to another, and problematize change on the continent. Perhaps the most enduring of these concepts are those of “tribe” and “tribalism” and their place in our understanding of the nature of change, or lack of it thereof, in the social, political, and economic arenas. There is need for a) a clear understanding of the meaning of “tribe” and “tribalism”; b) a review of how these two concepts have historically been produced: by who, when, and for what purposes?; c) an analysis of the phenomenon of “tribalism” in twentieth-century Africa: is “tribalism” a primordial idea that hinders processes of social change? Or is “tribalism” a necessary evil as Africa struggles to define herself in the modern world? d) Is “tribalism” uniquely African, a category essential to the analysis of the social origins of group behavior on the continent?

Underlying any attempt at answering these questions should be the assumption that there are certain continuities and discontinuities in the uses and misuses of “tribalism” in African history, and that the sociological and historical meanings of the concept in the twentieth century will emerge fully if it is traced to its roots both in the centuries before colonialism, and in colonial social engineering. Ladies and gentlemen, this is your research topic, broadly defined.